MOF-derived clever arenobufagin nanocomposites with glucose metabolism inhibition for enhanced bioenergetic remedy and built-in photothermal-chemodynamic-chemotherapy | Journal of Nanobiotechnology

Supplies and animals

Iron (III) chloride (FeCl₃) and 2-methylimidazole (2-MI) was bought from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Zinc nitrate hexahydrate [Zn (NO₃)₂·6H₂O] have been bought from Aladdin Biochemical Know-how Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Gossypol (Gp) was obtained from Jinan Daigang Biomaterial Co., Ltd. (Jinan, China). Thiazolyl blue tetrazolium bromide, Annexin V-FITC, JC-1 and propidium iodide (PI) have been offered by the Beyotime Institute of Biotechnology (Shanghai, China). Cytochrome C, caspase-9, caspase-3, Bcl-2, Bax and GAPDH have been all obtained from Abcam (Cambridge, UK). PKM2, LDHA, SDHA, HSP70 and HSP90 have been offered by Cell Signaling Know-how (Massachusetts, USA). Dithiothreitol, glycine and Tris-base have been from Biosharp (Anhui, China). PMSF, TEMED, bromophenol blue and acrylamid have been bought from Amresco (WA, USA). DMEM, FBS, PBS buffer and trypsin–EDTA resolution (0.25%) have been purchased from Gibco (Carlsbad, CA). All different chemical reagents have been of analytical or HPLC grade.

HepG2 cells have been offered by Cell Useful resource Middle, Peking Union Medical Faculty (PCRC) (Beijing, China). Male BALB/c nude mice (6–8 weeks, 19–23 g) have been bought from Beijing Very important River Laboratory Animal Know-how Co. Ltd (Beijing, China). All animal experiment procedures have been permitted by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the Institute of Chinese language Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese language Medical Sciences, and adopted the Information for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.

Preparation and characterization of ZIAMH nanocomposites

Synthesis of ZIF-8@ArBu&ICG

40 mg Zn (NO₃)₂·6H₂O, 0.77 g 2-methylimidazole, 1 mg ArBu and 1 mg ICG have been dissolved in 5 mL methanol, stirring at room temperature for five min. After centrifugation, desired precipitate was washed with water and dried for additional use.

Synthesis of ZIF-8@ArBu&ICG@MPN (ZIAM)

The fabric ZIF-8@ArBu &ICG, Gp and FeCl₃·6H₂O have been blended in outlined ratio (1:0.75:0.36 w/w). After being stirred in a single day at room temperature, the combination was dialyzed in deionized water, and the dialysis melium was interplaced by contemporary deionized water each 2 h. Nanoparticles have been collected by centrifugation and washed thrice with deionized water. ZIF-8@MPN of management group was synthesized in related means.

Synthesis of ZIAMH

The HA resolution (1.0 mg/mL) was stirred with ZIAM at a ratio of 1:50 in deionized water for two h, and ZIAMH was obtained by centrifugation, resuspended in PBS, and saved at 4 °C for additional experiments.

Characterization of ZIAMH

The morphology of the nanoparticles was noticed by transmission electron microscope (HITACHI, Tokyo, Japan). The particle dimension, dispersion index (PDI) and Zeta potential of the ready ZIAMH nanoparticles have been measured by a Malvern NanoZS90 (UK). The part composition and microstructure of the nanoparticles have been additional analyzed utilizing Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), The ingredient distribution was analyzed by Power Dispersive Spectrometer (EDS). The floor space of the nanoparticles was measured by Brunauer − Emmett − Teller (BET) technique. The loading content material (LC) and encapsulation efficacy (EE) of the ArBu and ICG within the nanoparticles was measured by UV − vis spectra, and was decided in line with the next equations.

Efficiency investigation of ZIAMH nanomaterials

In vitro drug launch

The in vitro ArBu and ICG launch from nanoparticles was decided at 37 °C in PBS containing 0.5% Tween-80 (pH 4.0, pH 5.6 or pH 6.5). The portions of launched ArBu and ICG drug have been decided by UV–vis spectrophotometer, respectively. Every pattern was measured for thrice.

Detection of ·OH

Methylene blue (MB) was launched to detect the hydroxyl radical (·OH) generated by ZIAMH. Utilizing methylene blue (MB) as an indicator, the technology of ·OH was detected by UV–Vis spectrophotometer. 100 μg and 200 μg of ZIAMH was blended with MB (10 μg/mL) and H₂O₂ (150 μM), respectively, to analyze the impact of pattern dimension on the chemical kinetic catalytic capacity.

The photothermal properties of ZIAMH

The temperature elevation curve and photothermal stability of ZIAMH have been measured beneath 808 nm NIR laser irradiation in vitro. Firstly, the thermal stability of ZIAMH was established. The temperature variation curves of ZIAMH resolution at totally different concentrations (125, 250, 500, 1000 μg/mL) have been measured beneath the irradiation of 808 nm NIR with an influence density of 1.5 W/cm² in line with the earlier examine [44]. FLIR Thermal CAM (E50) was used to file the real-time thermal picture of the pattern, and FLIR Examiner software program was used to quantify and draw the temperature elevation curve. Secondly, the thermal stability of ZIAMH was investigated. 1 mL of ZIAMH resolution was irradiated with 808 nm NIR laser for 600 s and cooled all the way down to room temperature, adopted by three cycles of laser irradiation. The temperature change of the answer was recorded in actual time curve.

Hemolysis Assay

The hemolysis of nanoparticles was decided by co-culture with human pink blood cells in line with beforehand reported technique. Crimson blood cells have been remoted by centrifugation at 5000 rpm, then have been rinsed with tris buffer and eventually diluted to five% blood cell inventory resolution. The focus of the fabric was began from 1000 μg/mL, which was diluted utilizing a double dilution technique. The fabric was then incubated with an equal quantity of pink blood cell samples in a 37% CO₂ incubator for 1 h. The PBS group was used as adverse management. 1% Triton X-100 resolution was outlined as optimistic management (which induced 100% hemolysis). After centrifugation, the supernatant was collected and its absorbance was measured at 540 nm. Triplicates have been made for every take a look at, the info have been recorded as imply ± commonplace deviation (SD, n = 3). The hemolytic proportion was estimated by the next equation:

the place A_m is the absorbance of cells handled by ZIAMH, A_n is the absorbance of the adverse management, and A_p is the absorbance of the optimistic management.

In vitro mobile uptake

HepG2 cells have been inoculated in confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) plates at a density of 1 × 10⁵ cell/ effectively for twenty-four h incubation. Free ICG (0.5 μg/mL), ZIF-8@ArBu&ICG@MPN (ZIAM, 0.625 mg/mL) and ZIAMH (0.625 mg/mL) have been added to the cells earlier than incubation for 0, 0.5, 1, 2 or 4 h. HepG2 cells have been washed with PBS and stuck with 4% paraformaldehyde for 30 min. Pre-cooled TritonX-100 was added to destroy the cell membrane. After washing with PBS, HepG2 cells have been stained with DAPI for 10 min. The fluorescence depth was imaged and analyzed by laser confocal microscopy at an excitation wavelength of 750 ± 10 nm and an emission wavelength of 810 ± 20 nm.

Cytotoxicity analysis

HepG2 have been seeded in 96-well plates with 5 × 10³ cell/ effectively for twenty-four h, after which totally different gradient concentrations of ZIAMH have been added to analyze the cytotoxicity. Subsequent, ZIF-8@MPN@HA (ZMH), ArBu, ArBu&ICG + NIR and ZIAMH + NIR have been added and incubated for twenty-four h. The cell viability worth was detected utilizing MTT colorimetry and calculated as follows:

Circulation cytometry evaluation of apoptosis

The cell apoptosis mechanism was explored by circulation cytometry utilizing Annexin V-FITC/PI Apoptosis Detection Package (BD Biosciences). HepG2 cells have been inoculated into 6-well plate for twenty-four h, comply with by 24 h incubation with PBS、ZMH (0.625 mg/mL), ArBu (90 μM), ArBu (90 μM)&ICG (50 μg) and ZIAMH (0.625 mg/mL), throughout which ArBu&ICG group and ZIAMH group have been irradiated by 1.5 w/ 5 min/ effectively of 808 nm laser publish 4-h incubation. Collected cell pellets have been washed with cool PBS and resuspended as much as 1 × 10⁶ cells/mL with binding buffer. 100 μL of the cell suspensions and 5 μL of AnnexinV-FITC have been then gently blended in falcon tube, adopted by 30 min darkish incubation at room temperature, with 5 μL of PI added in the midst of incubation. The suspension was then replenished with 400 μL of binding buffer and analyzed instantly.

Stay/Useless assay

HepG2 cells have been planted in 6-well plates at a density of three × 10⁵ cells/ effectively, after which handled with PBS, ZMH (0.625 mg/mL), ArBu (90 μM), ArBu (90 μM)&ICG (5 0 μg), ZIAMH (0.625 mg/mL) for twenty-four h, throughout which ArBu&ICG group and ZIAMH group have been irradiated with 1.5 W/ effectively 808 nm laser for five min after 4 h of remedy. The harvested cells have been stained with 10 nM of calcein AM and PI dye for 10 min at 37℃. Cells have been washed with PBS earlier than evaluation by confocal microscopy.

Measurement of mitochondrial membrane potential

HepG2 cells have been handled with PBS, ZMH (0.625 mg/mL), ArBu (90 μM), ArBu&ICG + NIR (90 μM ArBu & 50 μg ICG), ZIAMH + NIR (0.625 mg/mL) for twenty-four h, throughout which ArBu&ICG group and ZIAMH group have been irradiated with 1.5 W/ effectively 808 nm laser for five min after 4 h of remedy. The harvested cells have been then incubated with 1 mL JC-1 working resolution for 20 min. After washing, the cells have been resuspended with 500 μL of JC-1 working resolution for evaluation by BD FACSCalibur circulation cytometer.

Western blot evaluation

Whole protein was extracted from HepG2 cells or nude mouse tumors utilizing RIPA lysis buffer (Beyotime, China) with 1% protease inhibitor PMSF (Amresco, China). The protein content material was decided utilizing a BCA protein assay package (Beyotime, China). 30 μg of complete protein have been taken for SDS-PAGE electrophoresis, and moist transferred to polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane (Merck, Germany), primarily based on the protein quantification outcomes. After blocking with 5% skimmed milk/TBST resolution at room temperature for 1 h, the PVDF membrane was incubated with the indicated main antibodies: caspase-9 (1:500), caspase-3 (1:1000), cytochrome C (1:1000), Bcl-2 (1:1000), Bax (1:1000), PKM2 (1:500), LDHA (1:1000), SDHA (1:500), HSP70 (1:1000) and HSP90 (1:1000), and was shaken in a single day at 4 °C. After washing with TBST, the PVDF membrane was incubated with the corresponding secondary antibody (1:10,000) for 45 min at room temperature. The protein band was acquired by Tanon 5200 Chemiluminescence Imaging System (Shanghai, China) and GAPDH was used as inside management.

Seahorse cell vitality metabolic evaluation

The oxygen consumption fee (OCR) and extracellular acidification fee (ECAR) of HepG2 cells have been detected by Seahorse XF-96 system (Agilent, Santa Clara, USA) in line with the directions of Seahorse XF Cell Mito Stress Check Package and Glycolysis Stress Check Package. The HepG2 cells have been seeded into Seahorse XF cell tradition plates and have been handled with PBS, ZMH, ArBu, ArBu&ICG + NIR and ZIAMH. The 2 indicators OCR and ECAR have been measured to judge the vitality metabolism standing and mitochondrial perform of cells, and the experimental knowledge was analyzed utilizing wave software program and report generator.

Mobile ROS evaluation

Mobile reactive oxygen species (ROS) ranges have been decided utilizing a 2,7-dichloro-fluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) assay package (Beyotime, #S0033M) following the producer’s protocol. HepG2 cells have been seeded into confocal small dish cultured for twenty-four h at 37 °C and incubated with ZMH, ArBu, ArBu&ICG + NIR and ZIAMH + NIR for 4 h, respectively. Subsequently, the cells have been washed with PBS thrice and incubated with 10 μM DCFH-DA for 30 min. Then, the cells have been noticed by CLSM.

In vivo NIR fluorescence imaging of ZIAMH

For NIR fluorescence imaging and biodistribution evaluation, HepG2 tumor-bearing mice have been intravenously injected with ICG or ZIAMH. The tumor-bearing mice have been imaged utilizing an animal imaging system (Xtreme, Bruke) at 0.5, 4, 8, 24, and 48 h post-injection. Mice have been sacrificed 48 h after administration, and tumor tissues and essential organs (together with coronary heart, liver, spleen, lung and kidney) have been remoted for fluorescence imaging and semi-quantitative evaluation. The excitation wavelength of ICG was 750 ± 10 nm and the emission wavelength was 810 ± 20 nm.

In vivo photothermal imaging of ZIAMH

To judge the in vivo photothermal impact of ICG-loaded ZIAMH nanoparticles, PBS and ZIAMH have been intravenously injected to tumor-bearing mice, the thermal change of tumor irradiated at 808 nm NIR laser was monitored. Furthermore, 24 h after intravenous injection was chosen because the irradiation time and ICG accumulation reached its peak right now. The mice have been anesthetized with isoflurane, at predetermined time, after which 808 nm NIR laser (1.5 W/cm²) was injected to the tumor website. The mice have been thermally imaged with an infrared thermal imager (FLIR E50) each 0.5 min for a complete of 5 min. Quantitative evaluation on imaging outcomes and thermal variation knowledge was carried out by FLIR instruments.

In vivo tumor inhibition analysis

To ascertain a xenograft tumor nude mouse mannequin, 6 × 10⁶ HepG2 cells/effectively have been subcutaneously injected into male BALB/c nude mice primarily based on a beforehand described examine with some minor modifications [16]. After the tumor quantity reached roughly 100 mm³, HepG2 tumor-bearing mice have been randomly divided into 5 teams (n = 3): PBS group, ZMH group, ArBu group, ArBu + ICG + NIR group, PD-L1 group, ZIAMH + NIR group and ZIAMH + PD-L1 + NIR group, afterward the mice have been intravenously injected with the above drug formulations. For photothermal remedy, 24 h after injection, the tumor website was irradiated with 808 nm NIR laser (1.5 W/cm²) for five min. The tumor quantity and mouse physique weight (bw) have been measured each two days for a complete of 10 days, and the tumor quantity was calculated in line with the next components: V (mm³) = size × (width)²/2. The tumor inhibition ratio proportion = (bw management group -bw remedy group)/ bw management group × 100%. The tumor-bearing mice have been sacrificed 21 days after intravenous administration, and the center, liver, lung, spleen and kidney of the mice have been obtained for hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining to judge the morphology of most cancers cells.

Histochemical staining

For hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, tumor tissues and essential organs (coronary heart, liver, spleen, lung and kidney) of HepG2 tumor-bearing mice have been mounted in 4% formaldehyde resolution after which positioned in numerous concentrations of ethanol for dehydration. Subsequently, the tissues have been cleared with xylene, immersed and embedded in molten paraffin. The wax blocks have been reduce into sections and dewaxed with xylene, then rehydrated and rinsed with water, and stained with hematoxylin and eosin. The coverslips have been coated with impartial balsam mounting medium for sealing. The tumor and main tissue sections have been noticed and photographed with a microscope. For CD4 immunohistochemical staining, the tissue fixation and part steps are just like H&E staining, anticipated {that a} CD4 monoclonal antibody was added to particularly determine immune cell subpopulations that categorical CD4 molecules.

RNA-sequencing evaluation

The tumor tissues have been floor into powder utilizing liquid nitrogen and complete RNA was extracted by Trizol (Thermo Scientific, USA). RNA integrity was assessed utilizing the Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer (Agilent Applied sciences, USA). The transcriptome library was constructed utilizing a TruSeq Stranded mRNA LTSample Prep Package (Illumina, USA), and RNA-sequencing evaluation was carried out by Shanghai OE Biotech Co., Ltd (Shanghai, China).

Fastq software program was used to carry out high quality management evaluation on the preprocessed knowledge. The clear knowledge have been mapped to Homo sapiens (GRCh38.p13) by HISAT2. The Fragments Per Kilobase Million (FPKM) worth of every gene was calculated by Cufflinks, and the sequence counts for per gene have been acquired by HTSeq-count. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) evaluation was carried out utilizing an R package deal, DESeq2. Knowledge with P < 0.05 and log₂ |(fold change)|> 1 was thought-about as vital DEGs. Principal Part Evaluation (PCA), heatmap evaluation, Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment evaluation was carried out utilizing Omicshare cloud instruments (https://www.omicshare.com/instruments/).

Focused metabolomics of glucose metabolic pathways

The tumor tissues in every group have been homogenized with threefold quantity of saline resolution. 100 μL of the homogenate have been added with 0.2% formic acid-acetonitrile, then have been vortexed for 60 s and sonicated for 10 min in an ice-cold sonication bathtub. The combination was centrifuge at 12,000 r/min for 15 min at 4 °C. The supernatant was taken for UPLC-MS/MS focused metabolomic evaluation.

The UPLC-6500 + triple quadrupole MS/MS system (SCIEX, CA, USA) was utilized for quantitative evaluation of TCA cycle metabolites within the above tumor tissues. A Waters UPLC^® HSS PFP column (2.1 mm × 100 mm, 1.8 μm) was used for pattern separation at 35 ℃. The cell part consisted of (A) water containing 0.05% formic acid and (B) acetonitrile containing 0.05% formic acid with a circulation fee of 0.3 mL/min. The next gradient program of chromatographic situation was carried out: 0–4 min, 2% B; 4–6 min, 2%–98% B; 6–10 min, 98% B; 10–10.1 min, 98%–2% B; 10.1–14 min, 2% B. The injection quantity was 3 µL. The MS spectrum situations have been optimized as follows: ESI supply adverse ion mode; a number of response monitoring (MRM) detection mode; spray voltage, ± 4500 V; atomization temperature, 550 ℃; curtain fuel, 35 psi; collision air stress, 9 psi; atomization fuel stress (N₂) and fuel stress (N₂) have been each 55 psi. The parameters of metabolites together with Q1 Mass, Q3 Mass, collision vitality (CE) and decluttering potential (DP) have been listed in Desk S1.

Statistical evaluation

All knowledge have been analyzed by GraphPad Prism software program (Model 9.0, SanDiego, USA) and expressed as means ± commonplace deviation (SD). One-way ANOVA and t-test statistical evaluation have been used for all experimental knowledge. The numerous variations have been outlined as *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001 and ****P < 0.0001.